Human Health

Harm from fires

Discarded cigarette butts are the most littered item and cause a number of fires in Queensland. In 2019, the heritage-listed Binna Burra Lodge in Beechmont, together with 11 other houses, burned in a bushfire started from unlawfully discarded cigarette butts[14]. The fire endangered lives and had extensive economic and emotional impacts on the homeowners and the broader community. Two deaths have been officially attributed to fires started from cigarette butts, one in 2000–01 and one in 2002– 03[7]. The actual numbers could be higher as statistics are difficult to find.

Other Illegally dumped waste can also lead to life-threatening fires. Flammable waste, such as paper, can be a fuel and make small fires worse[16]. Glass dumped in dry bushland can be an ignition source.

If dumped tyres are burned (either intentionally or in a bushfire), they produce highly toxic smoke containing petroleum and oil. The smoke can also contain hazardous chemicals such as chlorine, styrene and butadiene, and metals like lead, cadmium and mercury[15]. Many of the chemicals are carcinogenic. Once lit, tyres are difficult to extinguish and burn for a long time.

Toxicity from ingestion and contact

Microplastics have been found in drinking water and major freshwater sources, including river and lake water, groundwater, tap water and bottled drinking water[9][21]. Microplastics have been detected in stool samples from test subjects[4]. Although the absorption of plastic across the gastrointestinal tract is relatively low, nanoplastics are more readily absorbed and may accumulate in the brain, liver and other tissues[19].

The impacts of microplastics on the human health are not yet known and are still the topic of much research. A recent study has identified a number of possible effects of microplastics on human health including their ability to penetrate organs (where smaller than 20 µm) and to cross cell membranes and the blood brain barrier (where 10 µm or less)[1].

In a 2018 study, researchers found potentially dangerous levels of organophosphate flame retardants(OPFRs) and plasticizers in the urine of children (3-28 months) in South East Queensland[6].

More research is needed to fully understand the implications of microplastics on human health, and to develop future strategies to remove them from the environment.

Toxicologists have stated that human health may be affected by[18]:

• the size of plastic— small  particles can more easily enter the body and can affect the immune system with oxidative stress, DNA damage and inflammation
• chemical effects— plastic can absorb pollutants such as pesticides and carcinogens and, once in circulation, can deliver these toxins to organs such as the brain or placenta
• microbial effects— the surface of plastic develops an ecosystem of its own and can transport bacteria and dangerous pathogens.

Harm from inhalation

Human health could also be at risk from the inhalation of microplastics. Due to the small size of microplastics, inhalation may induce lesions in the respiratory system, dependent upon individual susceptibility and particle properties[3][11].

Waste can release other toxins into the environment that can affect human health. This includes heavy metals and chemicals from cigarette butts[12]. The tar in cigarettes contains heavy metals and dangerous chemicals that can potentially leach into soil and water, and enter the food chain[19]. It is estimated that each discarded cigarette butt can contaminate 1000 litres of water with harmful levels of nicotine and may be a threat to drinking water[5].

Disease spread from accumulated waste

Mosquitoes can be a problem if they breed in accumulated waste, such as illegally dumped tyres. These environments can become a breeding ground for mosquitoes that can spread deadly diseases such as dengue fever, Zika virus, malaria and yellow fever[5].

Injury/Accidents from discarded waste

Waste material can cause a variety of injuries and accidents by[12]:

• unsecured waste material falling from trucks and trailers, resulting in car accidents and injuries to pedestrians
• motor vehicle accidents associated with avoiding wildlife scavenging on discarded waste
• people stepping on broken glass, fishing hooks and other sharp objects
• children swallowing discarded batteries
• children swallowing cigarette butts and other toxic material.

Litter has been found to contribute to 4.4% of serious motorcycle crashes due to debris, oil, and gravel on the road[8]. Potential safety impacts were similarly apparent for bicycle and scooter riders.

Health issues from accumulation

The accumulation and concentration of pollutants in the food chain is a major concern for human health. For example, a 2018 review showed that plastic is present in organisms at different levels of the same food chain.

Although it is known that microplastics adsorb chemicals, their effects on human health are largely unknown. However, there is concern that they may have some effects such as increasing inflammatory responses and disrupting gut biomes. For instance, BPA has been shown to disrupt the endocrine system and some heavy metals are known or probable carcinogens[10].

The potential impacts of ingesting plastic from seafood has also been studied[2]. For example, some southern Australian analysed samples of commercially farmed oysters were compared with global trends from literature. This found that microplastics were present in 49.4% of all sampled oysters. Some plastics used in production in aquaculture may risk emitting or becoming microplastics and have potential to contaminate food[20].

References

1. ^ Campanale, C, Massarelli, C, Savino, I, Locaputo, V & Uricchio, VF (13 February 2020), 'A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human Health', International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. [online], vol. 17, no. 4, p. 1212. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/4/1212 [Accessed 22 April 2025].
2. ^ Carbery, M, O'Connor, W & Palanisami, T (2018), 'Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health', Environment International, vol. 115.
3. ^ Gasperi, J, Wright, SL, Dris, R, Collard, F, Mandin, C, Guerrouache, M, Langlois, V, Kelly, FJ & Tassin, B (2018), 'Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?', Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health. [online], vol. 1, pp. 1-5. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468584417300119.
4. ^ Gonzales, R (2018), 'Your Poop is Probably full of Plastic.', WIRED. [online] Available at: https://www.wired.com/story/your-poop-is-probably-full-of-plastic/.
5. ^ a b Green, ALR, Putschew, A & Nehls, T (2014), 'Littered cigarette butts as a source of nicotine in urban waters', Journal of Hydrology. [online], vol. 519, pp. 3466-3474. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169414004107.
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7. ^ Hoy, M., & Moreton, S (2006), Deaths associated with fires caused by cigarettes.. [online], NSW Fire Brigade. Available at: https://www.fire.nsw.gov.au/gallery/files/pdf/research/CigDeathsReport_NCIS_3Oct_2006.pdf.
8. ^ Karimi, K & Faghri, A (2021), 'The Issues of Roadside Litter: A Review Paper', Current Urban Studies. [online], vol. 09, no. 04, pp. 779-803. Available at: https://www.scirp.org/journal/doi.aspx?doi=10.4236/cus.2021.94046 [Accessed 23 April 2025].
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10. ^ Microplastics in biosolids: definitions and implications - Parliament of Victoria. [online] Available at: https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/publications/research-papers/microplastics-in-biosolids-definitions-and-implications/ [Accessed 23 April 2025].
11. ^ Prata, JC (March 2018), 'Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health?', Environmental Pollution, vol. 234, pp. 115-126.
12. ^ a b Reasons, Consequences and Possible Solutions of Littering. (2020). [online], CENN. Available at: http://environment.cenn.org/waste-management/publications/reasons-consequences-possible-solutions-littering/.
13. ^ Rezania, S, Park, J, Din, MFM, Taib, SM, Talaiekhozani, A, Yadav, KK & Kamyab, H (2018), 'Microplastics pollution in different aquatic environments and biota: A review of recent studies', Marine Pollution Bulletin. [online], vol. 133, pp. 191-208. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18303291.
14. ^ Sapwell, G (2019), 'Cigarette butt to blame for devastating Binna Burra bushfire.', ABC News. [online] Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-13/binna-burra-fire-an-accident-teenagers-discarded-cigarettes/11699474.
15. ^ Singh, A, Spak, SN, Stone, EA, Downard, J, Bullard, RL, Pooley, M, Kostle, PA, Mainprize, MW, Wichman, MD, Peters, TM, Beardsley, D & Stanier, CO (2015), 'Uncontrolled combustion of shredded tires in a landfill – Part 2: Population exposure, public health response, and an air quality index for urban fires', Atmospheric Environment. [online], vol. 104, pp. 273-283. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231015000035.
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19. ^ a b c Waring, RH, Harris, RM & Mitchell, SC (2018), 'Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?', Maturitas. [online], vol. 115, pp. 64-68. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378512218303505.
20. ^ Wootton, N, Sarakinis, K, Varea, R, Reis-Santos, P & Gillanders, BM (November 2022), 'Microplastic in oysters: A review of global trends and comparison to southern Australia', Chemosphere. [online], vol. 307, p. 136065. Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0045653522025589 [Accessed 23 April 2025].
21. ^ Zuccarello, P, Ferrante, M, Cristaldi, A, Copat, C, Grasso, A, Sangregorio, D, Fiore, M & Conti, GO (2019), 'Exposure to microplastics (<10 μm) associated to plastic bottles mineral water consumption: The first quantitative study', Water Research. [online], vol. 157, pp. 365-371. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135419302921.

Last updated: 23 April 2025